The cultural and ideological turn in translation studies represents a shift in focus towards the examination of the cultural and ideological aspects that shape translation processes and outcomes. This turn recognizes that translation is not a neutral or objective practice, but rather one that is deeply embedded in cultural and ideological contexts. It acknowledges the influence of power relations, dominant narratives, and social structures on translation choices and strategies.
TRANSLATION, HISTORY AND CULTURE BY SUSAN BASSNETT AND ANDRÉ LEFEVERE
"Translation, History and Culture" is a collaborative work written by Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere, two prominent scholars in the field of translation studies. Published in 1990, the book explores the intricate relationship between translation, history, and culture, shedding light on the significant role translation plays in shaping and representing cultural identities.
Bassnett and Lefevere's work seeks to challenge the notion that translation is a purely linguistic activity by emphasizing its broader cultural and historical implications. They argue that translation is not a neutral process but rather a highly subjective and politically charged act that reflects power dynamics, ideologies, and social contexts. Through their analysis, they aim to demonstrate how translation acts as a medium through which dominant cultures assert their authority and perpetuate their own narratives.
The authors delve into the historical dimension of translation, highlighting how translation practices have evolved over time and the impact they have had on the transmission of knowledge and ideas across cultures. They explore key moments in history, such as colonization and the spread of empires, where translation played a crucial role in the domination and assimilation of marginalized cultures.
Bassnett and Lefevere also discuss the relationship between translation and culture, emphasizing that translation is not a mere transfer of words but a complex process that involves negotiating between different cultural systems. They argue that translation can be seen as a form of intercultural communication that exposes readers to different perspectives and challenges their own preconceptions. Furthermore, they examine the ways in which translation can contribute to the creation of a globalized culture and the tensions that arise when local cultures are either erased or appropriated.
The book draws upon a wide range of examples from literary works, historical documents, and case studies to illustrate its arguments. Bassnett and Lefevere's analysis is interdisciplinary in nature, drawing on theories from translation studies, literary criticism, postcolonial studies, and cultural studies. This interdisciplinary approach enriches their exploration of the complex interactions between translation, history, and culture.
"Translation, History and Culture" remains a seminal work in the field of translation studies, offering valuable insights into the cultural and historical dimensions of translation. It prompts readers to critically examine the power dynamics inherent in translation practices and encourages a deeper understanding of the role of translation in shaping our understanding of the world and its diverse cultures.
TRANSLATION, REWRITING AND THE MANIPULATION OF LITERARY FAME BY ANDRÉ LEFEVERE (1992)
"Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame" is a book written by André Lefevere and published in 1992. Building upon his earlier work in translation studies, Lefevere explores the relationship between translation, rewriting, and the construction of literary fame.
In this book, Lefevere challenges the conventional view of translation as a faithful and transparent rendering of an original text. Instead, he argues that translation is an act of rewriting, influenced by various factors such as ideology, power dynamics, and the cultural context of both the source and target languages.
Lefevere asserts that translation is not a passive process but an active intervention that involves selecting, adapting, and manipulating the original text to suit the cultural and literary norms of the target language. He suggests that translators have the power to shape the reception and reputation of literary works through their creative choices, and these choices can often be influenced by external factors such as publishers, critics, and the demands of the target market.
The book delves into the concept of literary fame and how it can be constructed or manipulated through translation. Lefevere argues that translation can contribute to the canonization or marginalization of authors, and that certain works and authors may gain recognition or lose relevance due to the translations available and their reception in different linguistic and cultural contexts. He explores examples from various literary traditions and historical periods to illustrate the impact of translation on the fame and reception of authors.
Lefevere also examines the role of translators as agents of cultural transfer and negotiation. He emphasizes that translators are not passive intermediaries but active participants in the literary field, shaping the reception and interpretation of texts. Translators, according to Lefevere, can be seen as cultural mediators who negotiate between the source and target cultures, making strategic choices that can influence the way a work is understood and valued in different contexts.
Through his analysis, Lefevere sheds light on the complexities of translation and its impact on the literary landscape. He challenges the notion of a fixed and stable original text, emphasizing the dynamic and transformative nature of translation. The book contributes to the broader understanding of translation as a creative act and highlights the role of translators in shaping literary fame and the reception of authors.
"Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame" is an important contribution to the field of translation studies, offering valuable insights into the complex relationship between translation, rewriting, and the construction of literary reputation. It invites readers to critically examine the role of translators as cultural agents and raises questions about the power dynamics and ideological influences inherent in the translation process.
TRANSLATION AND GENDER
The topic of "Translation and Gender" explores the intersection of translation studies and gender studies, examining how gender influences the practice of translation and the representation of gender in translated texts. Several theorists have made significant contributions to this area of research, offering diverse perspectives on the relationship between translation and gender. Let's discuss a few key theorists and their ideas:
Sherry Simon:
Simon's work focuses on the cultural and social aspects of translation, including the representation of gender. She argues that gender is an essential category that shapes the translation process and the reception of translated texts. Simon highlights the role of translators as cultural mediators who make choices that reflect the gender norms and expectations of both the source and target cultures.
Luise von Flotow:
Von Flotow's research emphasizes the importance of considering gender as a dynamic factor in translation. She explores how gendered power relations are reflected in the translation process, suggesting that the gender of translators and their positioning within the literary field can influence their choices and the way they represent gender in translated texts.
Susanne de Lotbinière-Harwood:
Lotbinière-Harwood focuses on the concept of "feminist translation." She argues that feminist translators have a political responsibility to challenge and transform gender norms through their translations. This includes strategies such as reinterpreting sexist language, highlighting female voices, and addressing gender biases in the source text.
Judy Wakabayashi:
Wakabayashi examines the role of gender in the historical context of translation, particularly during periods of colonization. She explores how gender influenced translation practices, noting that women translators often faced marginalization and were assigned specific genres or topics, reinforcing gender stereotypes.
Maria Tymoczko:
Tymoczko's research investigates the impact of gender on the reception of translated texts. She argues that gendered expectations and biases in the target culture can influence how translated works are perceived and evaluated. Tymoczko also explores the idea of "gendered geographies," which refers to the differences in the reception of male and female authors in translation.
These theorists offer valuable insights into the complex relationship between translation and gender. They highlight the ways in which gender influences the choices and strategies of translators, the representation of gender in translated texts, and the reception of these texts in different cultural contexts. Their work underscores the importance of considering gender as a significant factor in translation studies and encourages critical engagement with gender issues within the field.
TRANSLATION AS REWRITING
The concept of "Translation as Rewriting" challenges the traditional view of translation as a straightforward transfer of meaning from one language to another. Instead, it posits that translation involves a process of rewriting, where the translator makes creative choices that shape the target text. Several theorists have contributed to this idea, offering different perspectives on translation as rewriting. Let's explore a few key theorists in this area:
André Lefevere:
Lefevere is known for his influential work on translation and rewriting. He argues that translation is an act of rewriting that involves a range of creative decisions made by the translator. Lefevere emphasizes the role of cultural, ideological, and political factors in shaping the translation process. He suggests that translators engage in strategic rewritings to adapt the source text to the target culture, making choices that reflect the norms and expectations of the target audience.
Lawrence Venuti:
Venuti's theories on translation emphasize the translator's agency and the act of rewriting. He argues that translators have the power to shape the reception of foreign texts by making choices that either domesticize or foreignize the target text. Domestication involves making the translation conform to the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language, while foreignization seeks to retain the foreignness of the source text. Venuti's work highlights the political and ethical implications of translation choices.
Jorge Luis Borges:
Although primarily known as a writer, Borges made significant contributions to the theory of translation. He proposed the concept of "creative treason" to describe the inherent rewriting involved in translation. According to Borges, translation necessarily involves betrayal of the original text since it is impossible to capture its full essence. Borges suggests that translators should embrace this creative act of betrayal and engage in their own imaginative rewriting.
Itamar Even-Zohar:
Even-Zohar's polysystem theory posits that translation is an integral part of a larger cultural system. He argues that translated texts are not isolated entities but are in constant interaction with other texts and cultural norms. In this perspective, translation is seen as a process of rewriting that incorporates the norms and expectations of the target system, making the translation fit within the existing literary and cultural context.
These theorists offer different angles on the idea of translation as rewriting, highlighting the active role of translators in shaping the target text. They emphasize the creative choices and interventions made by translators, considering factors such as culture, ideology, and politics. Their theories challenge the notion of a fixed and transparent original text, and instead, they underscore the transformative nature of translation as a process of rewriting and adaptation.
POSTCOLONIAL TRANSLATION THEORIES
Postcolonial translation theories explore the complex dynamics between translation and postcolonialism, examining how translation practices and strategies are influenced by and contribute to processes of colonization, decolonization, and cultural resistance. These theories shed light on the power dynamics, linguistic imperialism, and cultural negotiations inherent in postcolonial contexts. Here are some key themes and theorists in postcolonial translation studies:
Homi Bhabha:
Bhabha's concept of "hybridity" is relevant to postcolonial translation theories. He argues that in postcolonial contexts, cultures and identities are constantly in flux and influenced by both the colonizer and the colonized. Translations in these contexts reflect the negotiation of identities and the blending of different linguistic and cultural elements.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
Spivak's work emphasizes the importance of considering the power dynamics in translation. She explores the concept of "epistemic violence" and argues that translations can perpetuate and reinforce unequal power relations. Postcolonial translation theories draw on Spivak's insights to examine how translations can be used to challenge and subvert these power imbalances.
Tejaswini Niranjana:
Niranjana's work focuses on the cultural politics of translation in postcolonial contexts. She analyzes how translations can be used as a form of resistance and cultural affirmation. Niranjana highlights the importance of translating marginalized voices and challenging dominant narratives in order to promote linguistic and cultural diversity.
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o:
Thiong'o advocates for "decolonizing the mind" through language and translation. He argues that postcolonial societies should reject the dominance of the colonizer's language and prioritize indigenous languages in translation practices. Thiong'o's ideas call for a reevaluation of translation practices to challenge linguistic imperialism and promote linguistic and cultural autonomy.
Walter Mignolo:
Mignolo's work on decoloniality examines the relationship between translation and coloniality. He emphasizes the need to decenter Eurocentric perspectives and recognize diverse knowledge systems in translation. Mignolo argues for translations that challenge dominant epistemologies and center marginalized voices and knowledge.
These theorists and their ideas contribute to postcolonial translation theories by interrogating the power dynamics, linguistic hierarchies, and cultural negotiations involved in the translation of texts from colonized or marginalized cultures. They call for translations that challenge dominant narratives, promote linguistic diversity, and provide platforms for marginalized voices. Postcolonial translation theories offer critical insights into the complexities of translation in postcolonial contexts and contribute to ongoing discussions on decolonization, cultural resistance, and the reclamation of linguistic and cultural identities.
TRANSLATION AND IDEOLOGY
Translation and ideology explore the ways in which ideology shapes and is reflected in translation practices. Ideology refers to a system of beliefs, values, and social structures that influence and maintain power relations within a society. Several theorists have contributed to our understanding of the relationship between translation and ideology. Let's discuss a few key theorists in this area:
Lawrence Venuti:
Venuti's work on translation and ideology focuses on the concept of "domestication" and "foreignization." He argues that translators often adhere to the dominant ideology of the target culture, which leads to domesticating translations that conform to the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language. This perpetuates and reinforces existing power structures. Venuti advocates for foreignizing translations that challenge dominant ideologies and provide access to alternative perspectives.
Theo Hermans:
Hermans examines the role of ideology in translation through the concept of "norms." He argues that translation is influenced by social, cultural, and literary norms that are embedded in the target culture. These norms reflect and reinforce ideological values, affecting translation choices and shaping the reception of translated texts. Hermans highlights the need for critical awareness of these norms and their ideological implications.
Mona Baker:
Baker's research explores the relationship between translation, power, and ideology. She argues that translation is an inherently political act influenced by power dynamics and ideological contexts. Baker highlights how translators can be complicit in reproducing dominant ideologies or engage in resistance by challenging and subverting them through their translation choices.
Gideon Toury:
Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) approach emphasizes the role of ideology in shaping translation norms. He argues that translation practices are influenced by the ideological assumptions prevalent in a society. Toury's work calls for a systematic analysis of the social, political, and ideological factors that shape translation norms and practices.
Michaela Wolf:
Wolf's research focuses on the ideological dimension of literary translation. She explores how translation choices can reflect and perpetuate dominant ideologies, such as gender, race, or political ideologies. Wolf suggests that translators should be aware of the ideological implications of their choices and strive to challenge dominant ideologies through their translations.
These theorists contribute to our understanding of the relationship between translation and ideology by highlighting how ideological values and power dynamics influence translation practices, norms, and choices. They emphasize the importance of critically examining the ideological implications of translation and the role of translators in either reinforcing or challenging dominant ideologies through their work. These insights encourage a more conscious and reflective approach to translation that acknowledges the ideological dimension of the translation process.
SUMMARY
The discussed translation theories shed light on various aspects of the translation process and its interaction with different domains such as gender, postcolonialism, and ideology. Here is a summary of the key points:
Gender and Translation:
Theorists such as Sherry Simon, Luise von Flotow, and Maria Tymoczko emphasize the role of gender in shaping translation practices, representation, and reception of gender in translated texts. They explore how gender influences the choices and strategies of translators, as well as the impact of gendered expectations and biases on the reception of translated works.
Translation as Rewriting:
André Lefevere, Lawrence Venuti, Jorge Luis Borges, and Itamar Even-Zohar propose that translation is a process of rewriting. They argue that translators make creative choices that shape the target text, influenced by cultural, ideological, and political factors. These theorists challenge the notion of a fixed and transparent original text, highlighting the transformative nature of translation.
Postcolonial Translation Theories:
The theorists in this field, including Homi Bhabha, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Tejaswini Niranjana, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, and Walter Mignolo, examine the impact of translation in postcolonial contexts. They explore the power dynamics, linguistic imperialism, and cultural negotiations inherent in postcolonial translation. These theories call for translations that challenge dominant narratives, promote linguistic diversity, and provide platforms for marginalized voices.
Translation and Ideology:
Lawrence Venuti, Theo Hermans, Mona Baker, Gideon Toury, and Michaela Wolf highlight the influence of ideology on translation. They argue that translation is shaped by social, cultural, and literary norms that reflect and reinforce ideological values. These theorists call for critical awareness of the ideological implications of translation and advocate for translations that challenge dominant ideologies and power structures.
Overall, these theories contribute to our understanding of translation as a complex and multifaceted process, influenced by factors such as gender, postcolonialism, and ideology. They encourage translators and scholars to critically engage with these aspects, promoting a more conscious and reflective approach to translation that acknowledges the social, cultural, and political dimensions of the task at hand.
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