ANALYSIS OF PROSE

Given below are devices which can be found in prose

Sr. No.	Device	Definition
A	Lexical categories
1	General	Simple Vocabulary: Words consisted of just one morpheme. Complex Vocabulary: Words consisted of two or more morphemes. Formal: Formal language is less personal than informal language. Colloquial: Colloquial language is the linguistic style used for casual communication. It is the most common functional style of speech, the idiom normally employed in conversation and other informal contexts. Emotional: Language having emotions like sad, happy, fear, anger, surprise etc. Referential: Referential meaning (also called denotative meaning, descriptive meaning, conceptual meaning, or sense) refers to the logical, cognitive, or denotative content of an expression. Idiomatic Phrases: An idiom is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-literal meaning attached to the phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal meaning of the phrase. (It's a piece of cake, it’s raining cats and dogs, Kill two birds with one stone, Let the cat out of the bag etc.) Collocation: A collocation is a series of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. üFast food                                          ûQuick food üSuper-fast train                                ûQuick train üMiss the bus                                     ûLost the bus üHeavy / bad traffic on the road        ûHard traffic on the Road Dialect: A particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social group. (British, American, Indian, Australian, Canadian, African etc.) Register: A register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular communicative situation. Frozen: This form is sometimes called the static register because it refers to historic language or communication that is intended to remain unchanged, like a constitution or prayer. Examples: The Bible, the United States Constitution, the Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and Juliet." Formal: Less rigid but still constrained, the formal register is used in professional, academic, or legal settings where communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and restrained. Slang is never used, and contractions are rare. Examples: a TED talk, a business presentation, the Encyclopaedia Brittanica, "Gray's Anatomy," by Henry Gray. Consultative: People use this register often in conversation when they're speaking with someone who has specialized knowledge or who is offering advice. Tone is often respectful (use of courtesy titles) but may be more casual if the relationship is longstanding or friendly (a family doctor.) Slang is sometimes used; people may pause or interrupt one another. Examples: the local TV news broadcast, an annual physical, a service provider like a plumber. Casual: This is the register people use when they're with friends, close acquaintances and co-workers, and family. It's probably the one you think of when you consider how you talk with other people, often in a group setting. Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular grammar is all common, and people may also use expletives or off-color language in some settings. Examples: a birthday party, a backyard barbecue. Intimate: Linguists say this register is reserved for special occasions, usually between only two people and often in private. Intimate language may be something as simple as an inside joke between two college friends or a word whispered in a lover's ear. Compound Words: In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding, composition or nominal composition is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. Compounding occurs when two or more words or signs are joined to make a longer word or sign. (Note+book, Foot+ball, Super+hero etc.) Words with Particular Suffixes: Words having suffix/es. (chemist, inactivity, argument, sadness etc.) Semantic Field: In the field of semantic the vocabulary is also used, as semantic is the study of meanings of the words, sentences and phrases in the language. Semantic is psychological and historical study and the classification of changes in the words. The study of associative and conceptual meaning. (child, boy, kid, needle, lion, autumn, spring etc.)
2	Nouns	Abstract Noun: A noun denoting an idea, quality, or state rather than a concrete object, e.g. truth, danger, happiness. Concrete Noun: A noun denoting a material object rather than an abstract quality, state, or action, e.g. dog, building, tree. Collective Noun: A collective noun is a word referring to a collection of things taken as a whole. Most collective nouns in everyday speech are not specific to one kind of thing. For example, the collective noun "group" can be applied to people or dogs or other things.
3	Adjectives	Adjective: An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. It "describes" or "modifies" a noun (The big dog was hungry). In these examples, the adjective is in bold and the noun that it modifies is in italics. Descriptive Adjectives: A descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and pronouns. Most of the adjectives belong in this type. These adjectives provide information and attribute to the nouns/pronouns they modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives are also called qualitative adjectives. Participles are also included in this type of adjective when they modify a noun. Examples: I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an attribute of the car) I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information about the subject) The hungry cats are crying. I saw a flying Eagle. Quantitative Adjectives: A quantitative adjective provides information about the quantity of the nouns/pronouns. This type belongs to the question category of ‘how much’ and ‘how many’. Examples: I have 20 bucks in my wallet. (How much) They have three children. (How many) You should have completed the whole task. (How much) Proper Adjectives: Proper adjectives are the adjective form of proper nouns. When proper nouns modify or describe other nouns/pronouns, they become proper adjectives. ‘Proper’ means ‘specific’ rather than ‘formal’ or ‘polite.’ A proper adjective allows us to summarize a concept in just one word. Instead of writing/saying ‘a food cooked in Chinese recipe’ you can write/say ‘Chinese food’. Proper adjectives are usually capitalized as proper nouns are. Example: American cars are very strong. Chinese people are hard workers. I love KFC burgers. Marxist philosophers despise capitalism. Demonstrative Adjectives: A demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone. Demonstrative adjectives include the words: this, that, these, those. A demonstrative pronoun works alone and does not precede a noun, but a demonstrative adjective always comes before the word it modifies. Examples: That building is so gorgeously decorated. (‘That’ refers to a singular noun far from the speaker) This car is mine. (‘This’ refers to a singular noun close to the speaker) These cats are cute. (‘These’ refers to a plural noun close to the speaker) Those flowers are heavenly. (‘Those’ refers to a plural noun far from the speaker) Possessive Adjectives: A possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership. It suggests the belongingness of something to someone/something. Some of the most used possessive adjectives are my, his, her, our, their, your.  All these adjectives always come before a noun. Unlike possessive pronouns, these words demand a noun after them. Examples: My car is parked outside. His cat is very cute. Our job is almost done. Her books are interesting. Interrogative Adjectives: An interrogative adjective asks a question. An interrogative adjective must be followed by a noun or a pronoun. The interrogative adjectives are: which, what, whose. These words will not be considered as adjectives if a noun does not follow right after them. ‘Whose’ also belongs to the possessive adjective type. Examples: Which phone do you use? What game do you want to play? Whose car is this? Indefinite Adjectives: An indefinite adjective describes or modifies a noun unspecifically. They provide indefinite/unspecific information about the noun. The common indefinite adjectives are few, many, much, most, all, any, each, every, either, nobody, several, some, etc.   Examples: I gave some candy to her. I want a few moments alone. Several writers wrote about the recent incidents. Each student will have to submit homework tomorrow. Articles: Articles also modify the nouns. So, articles are also adjectives. Articles determine the specification of nouns. ‘A’ and ‘an’ are used to refer to an unspecific noun, and ‘the’ is used to refer to a specific noun.   Examples: A cat is always afraid of water. (Here, the noun ‘cat’ refers to any cat, not specific.) The cat is afraid of me. (This cat is a specific cat.) An electronic product should always be handled with care. Compound Adjectives: When compound nouns/combined words modify other nouns, they become a compound adjective. This type of adjective usually combines more than one word into a single lexical unit and modifies a noun. They are often separated by a hyphen or joined together by a quotation mark.   Example: I have a broken-down sofa. I saw a six-foot-long snake. He gave me an “I’m gonna kill you now” look. The Degree of Adjectives: There are three degrees of adjectives: Positive, comparative, superlative. These degrees are applicable only for the descriptive adjectives. Examples: Positive degree: He is a good boy. Comparative degree: He is better than any other boy. Superlative: He is the best boy.
4	Verbs	Stative Verb: Stative verbs are verbs that express a state rather than an action. They usually relate to thoughts, emotions, relationships, senses, states of being and measurements. These verbs are not usually used with ing in progressive (continuous) tenses even though they may take on time expressions such as now and at the moment. We use the simple tenses for them. Paul feels rotten today. He has a bad cold. Do you recognize him? He is a famous rock star. Our client appreciated all the work we did for him. Dynamic Verb: A dynamic or fientive verb is a verb that shows continued or progressive action on the part of the subject. The world Dynamic is an adjective which means movement or change. It has duration and occurs over time (with or without defined endpoint). Dynamic verbs are like to run, to hit, to savour, to go, to intervene, etc. Dynamic verbs are used to describe an action rather than a state, that’s why sometimes known as action verbs. For example: I am chasing the car. I am reading
5	Adverbs	Adverb: a word or phrase that modifies or qualifies an adjective, verb, or other adverb or a word group, expressing a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, degree, etc. (e.g., gently, quite, then, there). Conjunctive Adverb: A conjunctive adverb is a type of adverb that joins two independent sentences or clauses of any kind. This type of adverb is used to connect two parts into one longer sentence. These parts can be whole sentences that need to be connected into one longer sentence or smaller clauses that need to be connected as well. Adverbs usually modify one verb, but conjunctive adverbs modify entire sentences because they connect larger parts than just one word. ·         I wanted to go have ice cream after work; however, my friend wanted something else. ·         He had studies all day and night; nevertheless, it wasn’t enough to pass the test. ·         It was never going to work between us; therefore, we decided to go our separate ways. ·         I had to work the whole weekend; in addition, there was also another contract from a month ago I had to deal with. Adverb Clause: Usually, an adverb is just one word which modifies or describes, a verb. An adverb clause, on the other hand, is an entire clause which functions as an adverb. This clause is a group of words, or an entire sentence, which modifies a verb. Since I work from home, I don’t have to eat in restaurants often. The adverb phrase is in the first sentence. The subject is “I” and the predicate “work,” so the clause is complete. This adverb clause answers the question: where? Adverb Phrase: An adverb phrase is a group of words that function as an adverb. Unlike the adverb clause, an adverb phrase does not need a subject and predicate. An adverb phrase is two or more words that modify the verb. Adverb phrases are used to describe the verb in more detail than just one adverb would. Since they are composed of more than one word they can answer a different set of questions. Adverb phrases often answer the questions:
B	Grammatical Categories
6	Sentence Type	Declarative Sentences: A declarative sentence is one of the four sentence types in the English language, along with interrogative sentences, exclamatory sentences, and imperative sentences. Each one serves a unique function; for declarative sentences, their function is to communicate information directly.  Any time you state a fact, opinion, observation, or explanation in a plain manner, you’re using a declarative sentence. For example, every sentence in this paragraph, the above paragraph, and the next paragraph are all declarative sentences.  Like most other sentence types, declarative sentences require a subject and a predicate. The subject is the noun that performs the action of a sentence, while the predicate is simply the verb, or action, of the sentence. Together, a subject and a predicate make up an independent clause, which is necessary for most sentence types, including declarative sentences.   Unlike other common types of sentences, declarative sentences always end in a period.  Types of declarative sentences with examples: As mentioned above, every declarative sentence needs at least one independent clause, which must contain a subject and a predicate. However, declarative sentences can also have more than one independent clause, or an independent clause combined with something called a subordinate clause (sometimes called a dependent clause).  There are four different types of declarative sentences, depending on how many clauses you have and which types they are. We provide a brief summary below, but if you’d like to learn more, check out our guide to sentence structure.  Simple sentence: A simple sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and nothing more.  The sky looks blue. Compound sentence: A compound sentence is a sentence with two or more independent clauses. The clauses are usually connected by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so, known as the FANBOYS), which typically require a comma, but not always. Alternatively, you can connect independent clauses using only a semicolon.  The sky looks blue, and the clouds look gray.  Complex sentence: A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and any number of subordinate clauses. If the subordinate clause comes before the independent clause, use a comma. If not, no comma is necessary.  If I wear my glasses, the sky looks blue.  Compound-complex sentence: A compound-complex sentence is a sentence with two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. They follow the rules for both compound sentences and complex sentences.  If I wear my glasses, the sky looks blue, and the clouds look gray.
7	Sentence Complexity	A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought. A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one independent clause. ... A COMPOUND SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined by. ... A COMPLEX SENTENCE has one dependent clause (headed by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun) joined to an independent clause. Coordination and Subordination: Coordination and subordination are two ways of combining sentences. Coordination means combining two sentences or ideas that are of equal value. Subordination means combining two sentences or ideas in a way that makes one more important than the other. Parataxis: Parataxis refers to the placing of two clauses next to one another without the use of subordinating conjunctions or coordinating conjunctions to clarify the relationship between the clauses. The omission of the conjunctions is also known as asyndeton. Sentences written in the paratactic style often use semicolons or commas to separate two or more independent clauses. The definition of parataxis derives from the Greek word paratassein meaning “placing side by side.” Hypotaxis: Hypotaxis refers to the arrangement of a sentence in which the main clause is built upon by phrases or subordinate clauses. Hypotactic sentence construction uses subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns to connect a sentence’s main clause to its dependent elements. By explicitly defining a clear connection and order between the clauses through syntactic subordination, hypotactic sentences establish a hierarchy of importance, essentially ranking each clause in the sentence. The etymology of the word hypotaxis goes back to the Greek prefix hypo, meaning "beneath," combined with taxis, meaning “arrangement."
8	Clause Types
9	Clause Structure	All clauses in English have at least two parts, a noun phrase (subject) and a verb phrase: The children laughed. All the people in the bus were laughing. But most clauses have more than two parts: Ali wanted a new bicycle. She put the flowers in a vase.
10	Noun Phrases	A noun phrase plays the role of a noun. In a noun phrase, the modifiers can come before or after the noun. Note: A noun phrase can also be headed by a pronoun. For example: the dog with fleas the one with fleas (This is a noun phrase headed by a pronoun.) Examples of Noun Phrases In normal writing, nouns nearly always feature in noun phrases. It is rare to find a noun functioning by itself (i.e., without any modifiers) in a sentence. Man proposes, but God disposes. (German canon Thomas à Kempis) (This example features two nouns without any modifiers. That's rare. In other words, there are no noun phrases in this example.) In real life, it is far more common for nouns to feature in noun phrases, i..e, to be accompanied by modifiers. Here is a list of noun phrases. In this list, every noun phrase consists of a head noun (highlighted) and at least one modifier. People: the soldier, my cousin, dopey Alan, the lawyer with the big nose Animals: that aardvark, one rat, a shark, funny Mickey Places: the house in the corner, inner London, dirty factory, no shelter Things: this table, our London Bridge, the sharp chisel, that nitrogen, last month, an inch, her cooking Ideas: utter confusion, some kindness, your faith, the Theory of Relativity, a joy So, a noun with any sort of modifier (even it's just "a" or "the") is a noun phrase.
11	Verb Phrases	What is a verb phrase? Verb phrases are one of the eight types of phrases in a sentence. They include the helping verb and main verb in a sentence. For example: The author is writing a new book. I must make an "A" in this class. The dog might eat the cake. He was walking to work today. We got married after college. You can also create verb phrases without helping verbs at all. These sentences can only be set in present or past verb tenses. For example: The author wrote a new book. I made an "A" in this class. The dog eats the cake. He walked to work today. We married after college. Like all phrases, verb phrases express an idea but cannot stand alone as a sentence. They can also include modifiers, complements, and direct or indirect objects as complete verb phrases.
12	Other Phrase Types	Prepositional: A prepositional phrase is a group of words consisting of a preposition, its object, and any words that modify the object. Most of the time, a prepositional phrase modifies a verb or a noun. These two kinds of prepositional phrases are called adverbial phrases and adjectival phrases, respectively. Examples of Prepositional Phrases The following sentences contain examples of prepositional phrases; the prepositional phrase in each sentence is italicized for easy identification. The cupcake with sprinkles is yours. The cupcake with colorful sprinkles is yours. We climbed up the hill. We climbed up the very steep hill. The rabbits hopped through the garden. The rabbits hopped through the perfectly manicured garden. Adverbial: An adverb phrase is simply a group of two or more words that function as an adverb in a sentence. Just as an adverb can modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, an adverb phrase of more than one word can further describe a verb, adverb, or adjective. Adverb phrases typically answer the questions how, where, why or when something was done, as you'll see in the adverb phrase examples below. Consider the following sentences: I parked the car. I parked the car here. I parked the car right here. I parked the car right here under the bridge. The first sentence does not contain an adverb or adverb phrase at all. The second sentence contains the adverb "here" to describe where the car was parked. The third sentence contains the adverb phrase "right here," which emphasizes where the car was parked and employs a phrase instead of a single adverb. The final sentence of the group contains a longer, more informative adverbial phrase. Note that "right here under the bridge" is a prepositional phrase that uses the preposition "under" and the object "bridge." In this case, the prepositional phrase functions as an adverb in the sentence. Since it modifies the verb to describe location, it is both a prepositional phrase and an adverbial phrase. Adjectival: Most people know what an adjective is, but when it comes to describing an adjective phrase, it’s easy to get confused. An adjective phrase, or an adjectival phrase, is more than a group of words with an adjective in it. It’s actually a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence, thus functioning as an adjective. You don’t have to be a grammar buff to know what an adjective phrase is or understand how one works. People use these phrases all the time. An adjective phrase is defined as a group of words that, together, function as an adjective. That means that the phrase itself acts as an adjective in a sentence. An adjective phrase includes at least one adjective, along with at least one other word. All of the words that are modifiers or complements to the adjective are part of the overall adjective phrase. Function of Adjective Phrases What purpose do adjective phrases serve? Adjective phrases modify nouns or pronouns, functioning in the same manner with both. How to Identify an Adjective Phrase The trick to identifying an adjective phrase is to identify a group of words within a sentence that is working together to describe a noun or pronoun. Find an adjective, which is a word that describes a noun or pronoun, in the sentence. Determine if the adjective is describing a noun or pronoun on its own or in tandem with one or more other words. If it is working alone, it is just an adjective. If it is working with other words, it is the head of an adjective phrase. Identify the other words that are acting with the head adjective to describe the noun or pronoun. These are part of the adjective phase. They can be adverbs, prepositions, prepositional phrases, or other adjectives.
13	Word Classes	Modern grammars normally recognise four major word classes (verb, noun, adjective, adverb) and five other word classes (determiners, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection), making nine word classes (or parts of speech) in total. But note that some grammarians use different systems and may recognise eight or ten different word classes. Verbs Verbs are action or state words like: run, work, study, be, seem Nouns Nouns are words for people, places or things like: mother, town, Rome, car, dog Adjectives Adjectives are words that describe nouns, like: kind, clever, expensive Adverbs Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, like: quickly, back, ever, badly, away generally, completely Prepositions Prepositions are words usually in front of a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, like: after, down, near, of, plus, round, to Pronouns Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns, like: me, you, his, it, this, that, mine, yours, who, what Interjections Interjections have no grammatical value - words like: ah, hey, oh, ouch, um, well Word Forms Prefixes with Prefixes Quiz List of prefixes with examples: non-, inter-, post- Suffixes Lists of suffixes and examples in use: -ation, -al, -ize Words starting with mono- and poly- Lists of words starting with the combining forms mono- and poly- Contractions Shortened forms of words and phrases, common in speech: I'm, aren't, here's, gonna WH Question Words The words we use to make question word questions: WHo, WHat, HoW
14	General	Making comparisons with adjectives ·         Comparative Adjectives Comparative Construction - Short Adjectives Comparative Construction - Longer Adjectives Superlative Adjectives Superlative Construction - Short Adjectives Superlative Construction - Longer Adjectives In simple terms, an adjective is a word which is used to give extra information about a noun, or which helps to describe it. When we want to compare two or more nouns, we use a comparative adjective. When we want to talk about a single noun, and explain what makes it different to other nouns, we use a superlative adjective. A comparative adjective is an adjective form which is used to compare two or more nouns. ·         France is smaller than Russia. ·         My sister is shorter than me. ·         It is easier to read English than to speak it. A superlative adjective is an adjective form which is used to identify or describe one noun (of many) and explains that this noun has something which makes it different to other similar nouns or shows extremes. ·         Paris is the most romantic city in the world. ·         My brother is the laziest person I know. ·         When it was built, the Empire State Building was the tallest building in the world. Comparative Adjectives Comparative adjectives are used to compare the differences between two or more nouns. When we want to express a difference between two nouns we normaly use one of two forms, using a comparative adjective followed by 'than' or with 'as  comparative adjective  as' as shown below:        noun + to be + (comparative adjective + than) + noun or        noun + to be + (as + comparative adjective + as) + noun Comparative adjectives can be made negative by adding 'not' before the forms in brackets. Examples: ·         John is taller than Catherine. ·         Steven is as tall as John. ·         Catherine is not as tall as John. Comparative construction - Short Adjectives Most one-syllable adjectives and some two-syllable adjectives take the ending '--er'. ·         young --> younger ·         tall --> taller ·         old --> older If the base adjective ends in "--y" we replace the "y" with "i": ·         heavy --> heavier ·         early --> earlier ·         busy --> busier If the base adjective ends in "--e" we only add an "r": ·         large --> larger ·         simple --> simpler ·         late --> later If the adjective ends with a single vowel +consonant, we double the consonant and add "--er": ·         big --> bigger ·         thin --> thinner ·         hot --> hotter Some very common adjectives have irregular comparative forms: ·         good --> better ·         bad --> worse ·         far --> farther / further Comparative construction - Longer Adjectives Most adjectives which have two or more syllables are changed to a comparative form by adding 'more' (for positive comparisons) or 'less' (for negative comparisons) in front of the base adjective. The form 'as + comparative + as' can also be used with longer adjective forms. Examples: ·         My father is more impatient than my mother. ·         My brother is less intelligent than me. ·         The BMW M3 is more expensive than the 330i, but it is more economical. ·         Stephen King's latest book is not as interesting as 'The Green Mile'. As much/many as.... We can also use these forms:   "As much/many + noun + as + noun/pronoun"  and  'As few/little + noun + as + noun/pronoun' to compare quantity. We can use 'as...as' to make a negative comparison.  ·         I earn as much money as you. ·         Alice has as many children as Mary. ·         I don't earn as much money as you. ·         We don't have as many children as Richard and Susan. ·         They have as few visitors as we have. ·         They have as little money as we have. Note: Although the 'as much/many' form is commonly used, the 'as few/little' form is rarely used in modern English.   The...... the.... comparisons The construction:  'the less + comparative+ subject + verb + the + subject + verb'  is used to explain how one thing is affected by another, and to say how things change.  Note the word order. ·         The more I work, the more tax I pay ·         The older I get, the happier I am ·         The more she talks, the less I understand her! 'More' can be used with a noun in this structure: ·         The more money she earns, the more clothes she buys! Superlative Adjectives The superlative is used to illustrate extremes and usually refers to an individual thing or person. The superlative is used to explain that a noun has more of a specified quality than other similar nouns. A superlative adjective usually explains that the noun it refers to is unique. However, it can also refer to plural items or people: the best players, the richest people, the first, the worst, the last, etc. Short one-syllable adjectives become superlative by adding 'est' to the base adjective, whereas longer adjectives use the words 'most' or 'least'.   The superlative is always preceded by a definite article. ·         Robert is the shortest boy in his school. ·         The Eifel Tower is the most famous building in France. ·         The new Aston Martin One-77 is the most expensive car in the world. It costs $1,770,000! Superlative Construction - Short Adjectives One-syllable adjectives (and some common two-syllable adjectives) become superlative by adding the ending '--est'. ·         young --> youngest ·         tall --> tallest ·         old --> oldest If the adjective ends in '--y' we replace the 'y' with 'i' : ·         heavy --> heaviest ·         early --> earliest ·         busy --> busiest If the adjective already ends in '--e' we only add '--st' : ·         large --> largest ·         simple --> simplest ·         late --> latest If the adjective ends in a single vowel + consonant, we double the consonant and add"--est": ·         big --> biggest ·         thin --> thinnest ·         hot --> hottest Some very common superlatives have irregular forms: ·         good --> best ·         bad --> worst ·         far --> farthest Some adjectives exist only in superlative form: ·         first ·         last Superlative construction - Longer Adjectives Most adjectives which have two or more syllables are changed to a superlative form by adding 'the most' for positive comparisons and 'the least' for negative comparisons in front of the base adjective: Examples: ·         My father is the least patient man I know. ·         I am the most intelligent boy in my school. ·         The new Aston Martin is the most expensive car ever made in Britain. ·         Professor Stephen Hawking has the most original mind in modern science. Degree modifiers with comparatives and superlatives We cannot use 'very' with comparatives. Instead we use other degree modifiers like 'much', 'far', 'a lot','any', 'no', 'a little', 'a bit' and 'even'.   Examples: ·         She is much older than her husband. ·         Is he any better? ·         Russian is much/far more difficult than Spanish. ·         You are no better than him. We do not use ' any', 'no', 'a bit' and 'a lot' to modify comparatives in front of nouns. ·         There are much better shops in the city.   (NOT … a bit/a lot better …) More When 'more' modifies a plural noun, it is modified by 'many'. ·         There are many moreopportunities available to students in the UK than in Greece. When 'more' modifies a singular/uncountable noun, it is modified by 'much'. ·         He has much more money than I do.
C	Figures of Speech
15	Grammatical and Lexical	Anaphora Anaphora is a rhetorical device that features the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive sentences, phrases, or clauses. Anaphora works as a literary device to allow writers to convey, emphasize, and reinforce meaning. This word repetition at the beginning of each phrase in a group of sentences or clauses is a stylized technique that can be very effective in speeches, lyrics, poetry, and prose.   “We came, we saw, we conquered.” (translated from Latin, attributed to Julius Caesar in a letter to the Roman senate)   “It’s not the size of the dog in the fight; it’s the size of the fight in the dog.” (Mark Twain)   “Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed.” (Martin Luther King Jr.) Parallelism Parallelism is the repetition of grammatical elements in writing and speaking. Parallelism influences the grammatical structure of sentences but can also impact the meaning of thoughts and ideas being presented. When writers utilize parallelism as a figure of speech, this literary device extends beyond just a technique of grammatical sentence structure. It may feature repetition of a word or phrase for emphasis, or it can be used as a literary device to create a parallel position between opposite ideas through grammatical elements as a means of emphasizing contrast.   he that will cheat at play, will cheat you any way   stupid is as stupid does   cousins by chance; friends by choice   luck is the idol of the idle   no pain, no gain Chiasmus Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect. “Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You.” Notice that the second half of this sentence is an inverted form of the first half, both grammatically and logically. In the simplest sense, the term chiasmus applies to almost all “criss-cross” structures, and this is a concept that is common these days. In its strict classical sense, however, the function of chiasmus is to reverse grammatical structure or ideas of sentences, given that the same words and phrases are not repeated. Antithesis Antithesis is a literary device that refers to the juxtaposition of two opposing elements through the parallel grammatical structure. The word antithesis, meaning absolute opposite, is derived from Greek for “setting opposite,” indicating when something or someone is in direct contrast or the obverse of another thing or person. For example, Alexander Pope states in An Essay on Criticism, “To err is human; to forgive divine.” Pope’s use of antithesis reflects the impact of this figure of speech in writing, as it creates a clear, memorable, and lyrical effect for the reader. In addition, Pope sets human error in contrast to divine forgiveness, allowing readers to understand that it is natural for people to make mistakes, and therefore worthy for others to absolve them when they do. Examples of Antithesis in Everyday Speech Antithesis is often used in everyday speech as a means of conveying opposing ideas in a concise and expressive way. Since antithesis is intended to be a figure of speech, such statements are not meant to be understood in a literal manner. Here are some examples of antithesis used in everyday speech: Go big or go home. Spicy food is heaven on the tongue but hell in the tummy. Those who can, do; those who can’t do, teach. Get busy living or get busy dying. Speech is silver but silence is gold. No pain, no gain. Reinforcement Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Psychologist B.F. Skinner is considered the father of this theory. Note that reinforcement is defined by the effect that it has on behavior—it increases or strengthens the response.2 For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (the reinforcer) immediately after a child puts away her toys (the response). By reinforcing the desired behavior with praise, the child will be more likely to perform the same actions again in the future. Reinforcement can include anything that strengthens or increases a behavior, including specific tangible rewards, events, and situations. In a classroom setting, for example, types of reinforcement might include praise, getting out of unwanted work, token rewards, candy, extra playtime, and fun activities. Primary Reinforcement Primary reinforcement is sometimes referred to as unconditional reinforcement. It occurs naturally and doesn't require learning in order to work. Primary reinforcers often have an evolutionary basis in that they aid in the survival of the species. Examples of primary reinforcers include: Air Food Sleep Sex Water Genetics and experience may also play a role in how reinforcing such things works. For example, while one person might find a certain type of food very rewarding, another person may not like that food at all. Secondary Reinforcement Secondary reinforcement, also known as conditioned reinforcement, involves stimuli that have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus. For example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be used as primary reinforcers. The sound of a clicker can be associated with the praise and treats until the sound of the clicker itself begins to work as a secondary reinforcer. Climax Climax is the highest point of tension or drama in a narratives’ plot. Often, climax is also when the main problem of the story is faced and solved by the main character or protagonist. The phrase climax is derived from the Greek word klimax meaning “ladder.” Reading a story is like climbing a ladder, with the climax at the top. The basic elements of plot are as follows: Exposition: Characters and setting are established and the conflict, or problem, is introduced. Rising action: The conflict begins to affect the characters, complicating their lives. Climax: The conflict is faced during the main, most dramatic event of the story. Falling action: The story begins to slow down, showing results of the climax. Resolution: The story is tied up and concluded. A story about a mother and daughter: Conflict: A character and her mother are upset with each other. The main character believes she must be an artist, whereas her mother does not support her career and would rather have her be an accountant. Climax: The character and her mother have a large argument in which they both state their feelings. At the end of the argument, they agree to love one another despite their disagreements. Example 2 A story about a Boy and His Dog: Conflict: A boy is playing with his rambunctious dog Sadie when she pulls loose from her collar and runs away. Now, the boy must find Sadie before she runs too far away to be found. Climax: After looking for Sadie for a while, the boy hears barking from around the house. There, he finds his lost dog and the two happily meet again. Example 3 A story about a boy’s crush: Conflict: Sam has had a crush on Mary for months, but he does not know how to tell her how he feels. Climax: At the school dance, Sam makes his feelings for Mary known by asking her to dance. As can be seen from these short story examples, climax is the most exciting point of the plot when the conflict is finally faced. Anticlimax Anti-climax is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a disappointing situation, or a sudden transition in discourse from an important idea to a ludicrous or trivial one. It is when, at a specific point, expectations are raised, everything is built-up, and then suddenly something boring or disappointing happens — this is an anti-climax. Besides that, the order of statements gradually descend in anti-climax. There are two types of anti-climax. The first is used in narrations, such as the anti-climax about the overall plot of the story. The second one is a figure of speech, which might occur anywhere in the story. Examples of Anti-Climax Example #1: The Rape of the Lock (By Alexander Pope) “Here thou, great Anna, whom three realms obey, Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes tea…” In the extract, it is used as a figure of speech. Pope is drawing the attention of readers to the falseness. Anna is Queen of England, who holds meetings, and indulges also in afternoon tea customs. Ludicrous effect is created by using the anti-climax. Example #2: The Deserted House (By ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Alfred Lord Tennyson) “Come away: for Life and Thought Here no longer dwell; But in a city glorious— A great and distant city—have bought A mansion incorruptible. Would they could have stayed with us.” Here, the last line of poem presents anti-climax, as the poet is describing issues associated with life on Earth. Here, heaven is referred as “city glorious.” He asks whether people could come and live in heaven, which is a change in discourse from an important note to trivial. Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare) Othello: “Well, hurry up and confess. Be quick about it. I’ll wait over here. I don’t want to kill you before you’ve readied your soul. No, I don’t want to send your soul to hell when I kill you…” DESDEMONA: “Send me away, my lord, but don’t kill me…” Othello: “It’s too late…” This is one of the narrative anti-climax examples from Shakespeare’s works. Here, a sudden transformation can be seen, when Othello stabs Desdemona. It is creating a disappointing and thrilling effect in the end. Example #4: Much Ado About Nothing (By William Shakespeare) DON PEDRO: “Why, then are you no maiden.— Leonato, I am sorry you must hear. Upon mine honor, Myself, my brother, and this grievèd count Did see her, hear her, at that hour last night Talk with a ruffian at her chamber window Who hath indeed, most like a liberal villain, Confessed the vile encounters they have had A thousand times in secret.” This is a good example of anti-climax, when Hero is publicly denounced and humiliated at her wedding. Her chastity is challenged by her fiancé Claudio. Here climax turns into anti-climax. Example #5: Dr.Fautus (By Christopher Marlowe) Faustus: “Nay! Let me have one book more, and then I have done, wherein I might see all plants, herbs, and trees that grow upon the earth.” Meph: “Here they be.” Faustus: “O thou art deceived…” This is an example of anti-climax as a figure of speech, which has taken place in the final line of this excerpt. Marlowe uses it as a warning to the audience not to follow the ways of Faustus, because it could bring shallow reward and superficial happiness only.
16	Phonological Schemes	Rhyme Rhyme is a literary device, featured particularly in poetry, in which identical or similar concluding syllables in different words are repeated. Rhyme most often occurs at the ends of poetic lines. In addition, rhyme is principally a function of sound rather than spelling. For example, words rhyme that end with the same vowel sound but have different spellings: day, prey, weigh, bouquet. This is true for words with the same consonant ending as well: vain, rein, lane. Rhyme is therefore predominantly independent of the way words look or are spelled. Writers use rhymes as a way to create sound patterns in order to emphasize certain words and their relationships with others in an artistic manner. An example of the emphasis of rhyme as a function of the sounds or pronunciations of words is the poem “Going to Extremes” by Richard Armour: Shake and shake The catsup bottle None’ll come– And then a lot’ll. Rhyme in this case provides an overall structure for Armour’s poem. By rhyming “bottle” with “lot’ll,” the poet achieves an effect that is satisfying and fulfilling for the reader, both in the poem’s form and content. There are many types of rhyme, particularly in poetry. Here are some common examples of rhyme forms: Perfect Rhyme: This rhyme form features two words that share the exact assonance and number of syllables, and is also known as a true rhyme. (skylight and twilight) Slant Rhymes: This rhyme form features words with similar but not exact assonance and/or a number of syllables. This is also known as half rhyme or imperfect rhyme. (grieve and believe) Eye Rhymes: This rhyme form features two words that appear similar when read, but do not actually rhyme when spoken or pronounced.  (Mood and hood; move and dove) Masculine Rhyme: This rhyming form takes place between the final stressed syllables of two lines. (compare and repair) Feminine Rhyme: This rhyming form features multi-syllables in which stressed and unstressed syllables rhyme with each other, respectively. (lazy and crazy) End Rhymes: These are rhymes that occur between the final words of two consecutive lines of poetry or non-consecutive lines following a rhyme scheme in a stanza. Assonance Assonance (ăs'ə-nəns) is a literary device in which vowel sounds are repeated within phrases or sentences that are close to each other in the text. It can even occur within individual words. Assonance can involve the repetition of identical vowel sounds, or vowel sounds that are very similar. Assonance creates an echoing effect. assonance within a word - crackerjack assonance within a phrase - friends until the end assonance within a sentence - Try to light the fire. Alliteration Alliteration is a literary technique derived from Latin, meaning “letters of the alphabet.” It occurs when two or more words are linked that share the same first consonant sound, such as “fish fry.” Some famous examples of alliteration sentences include: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.  Sally sells seashells by the sea shore.  How much wood could a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood? “Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation,” Martin Luther King. The sound, not the letter, is the most important element of alliteration meaning, as not all adjacent words sharing first consonants amount to alliteration. ‘Kitty cat’ and ‘fish phobia’ are considered alliteration examples, but not “thirty typists,” because ‘th’ and ‘ty’ don’t sound the same.  Rhythmical Patterns Rhythm is the use of stressed and unstressed syllables, which creates what you experience as a pattern of beats in the sound of the words. The word rhythm comes from the Greek word rhythmos, which can be translated as “measured motion.” The best poems roll over our tongues with a tested and proven pathway, and that’s clearly not by accident: the writer intentionally crafted each line, designed to lure our souls into its magic. Experts in literature highly recommend young children be exposed to nursery rhymes and poetry from an early age because instills an appreciation for language that they will carry into adulthood. But if you have not had that privilege, it’s definitely not too late to learn how to write with rhythm. Sound Pattern Sound Patterns is a musical piece for a cappella mixed chorus by Pauline Oliveros. Oliveros won the Gaudeamus International Composers Award in 1962 with this work. Rather than a traditional text, the work is constructed of phonetic sounds chosen on the basis of their timbre. Every person has a different vocal tract according to their contexture. Consequently in physical terms every single person will pronounce sounds differently. Then, there are many different physical ways of saying a simple word, for instance: me. On the other hand, a person will not produce a word in a physically identical manner on every occasion.
17	Tropes	Neologisms: A newly coined word or expression. For examples of neologisms, consider some of these new words: blutter: to give a long, rambling speech about uncertainty Blutter combines other words like blabber and stutter to create a new word with a new meaning. Semantic Deviations: Semantic deviation shows that a word or phrase can have many different meanings. A word can be taken in different contexts. The real meaning can be different from apparent meaning. Semantic deviation includes irony, paradox, metaphor, simile, pun, style. Syntactic Deviations: Syntactic Deviation The syntactic deviation occurs when a writer deviates from the norms of syntax. It is a departure from the normal rules of grammar. It is a kind of deviation in which poets do not follow the rules of grammar and sentence formation. Phonological Deviations: It refers to the misuse of words which comes when one says "reprehend" for "apprehend", "derangement" for "arrangement" and so on (Clark, 1977: 287). Graphological Deviations: Graphological deviation is a type of linguistic deviation where rules of academic writing are neglected in. a way where sentences are written without punctuation marks. Graphological deviation occurs when an. author deviate his writing form the usual ways of writing.( Khan.et al, 2016) they claimed that. Metaphor: A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept. Synecdoche: A synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something refers to the whole of something or vice versa. A synecdoche is a class of metonymy, often by means of either mentioning a part for the whole or conversely the whole for one of its parts. Paradox: A paradox is a logically self-contradictory statement or a statement that runs contrary to one's expectation. It is a statement that, despite apparently valid reasoning from true premises, leads to a seemingly self-contradictory or a logically unacceptable conclusion. Irony: Irony, in its broadest sense, is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or event in which what on the surface appears to be the case or to be expected differs radically from what is actually the case. Irony can be categorized into different types, including verbal irony, dramatic irony, and situational irony.
D	Context and Cohesion
18	Cohesion	Cohesion refers to the way we use vocabulary and grammatical structures to make connections between the ideas within a text. It provides flow and sequence to your work and helps make your paragraphs clear for the reader.
19	Context	The definition of context is the setting within which a work of writing is situated. Context provides meaning and clarity to the intended message. Context clues in a literary work create a relationship between the writer and reader, giving a deeper understanding of the intent and direction of the writing.